It’s simple - they are extra teeth! Many scholarly articles call this hyperdontia. Again, hyper- (more than usual), -dontia (having to do with teeth) = more teeth!
Let’s discuss the symptoms and causes of supernumerary teeth. We’ll get to the “root” of what causes this abnormality and how and when we treat the condition.
In the typical human mouth, children have 20 primary baby teeth, then 32 permanent teeth that replace them. In someone’s mouth that has supernumerary teeth, this can be any number of extra teeth. Some people have an extra single tooth, and others may have multiple supernumerary teeth.
Supernumerary teeth in an adult with all their permanent teeth are twice as likely to happen in males than females. The chance of having supernumerary permanent teeth is greater in Asian, Native American, and indigenous populations. Extra tooth development in primary teeth is less prevalent than in permanent teeth.
Dentists diagnose hyperdontia and classify teeth by their location and shape. An extra tooth may grow in or along any part of the dental arches. Usually, the extra tooth causes no discomfort, but if it starts putting pressure on nearby teeth, it can begin causing pain.
The shape of the teeth may be classified as:
The location of the teeth also contributes to their classification:
Environmental and genetic factors can cause supernumerary teeth in pediatric patients. Many times, these extra teeth are simply due to a genetic quirk, with no associated health issues. However, multiple supernumerary teeth (more than one extra tooth) are often associated with a disease or a genetic syndrome.
Here are some of the most common genetic factors that can lead to supernumerary teeth:
There are many other causes of supernumerary teeth, but Gardner’s syndrome, cleidocranial dysplasia, and cleft lip and palate cause the most common dental anomalies involving extra teeth.
Most supernumerary teeth happen within the maxillary incisors (upper front teeth) area and can delay or impair the eruption of permanent teeth. If your child’s supernumerary teeth erupt, they can cause normal dentition to become impacted, or the teeth may appear outside the dental arch. The adjacent teeth can become crowded, or your kiddo may have crooked teeth.
Other problems may include:
These complications may come from a single supernumerary tooth or multiple extra teeth. All disrupt the regular teeth and dental tissue.
Sometimes, we watch their growth and delay any intervention if they are not causing pain or any of the complications or risk factors listed above.
Treatment is sometimes necessary to keep your child’s teeth aligned and prevent their baby or permanent teeth from becoming an issue later in life. We may need to remove the supernumerary tooth or other adjacent tooth to make room for the permanent dentition or prevent tooth impaction.
Orthodontic treatment may be necessary to correct the alignment of the 32 permanent teeth. Sometimes, a dental implant may be required to save space for a permanent tooth.
Supernumerary teeth – aka extra teeth, or hyperdontia – is something Dr. Culp and our team at Jungle Roots are experienced in identifying and treating.
If identified, we are happy to answer any questions and educate you and your child about it. You’ll understand the risks and possible treatments necessary to alleviate any discomfort or interference that the supernumerary tooth may cause. You can count on us to answer all of your questions and concerns.
It’s our privilege to help your children enjoy optimal dental health, and we look forward to seeing you at your next appointment!
Discover festive traditions and events that make the holidays in
Southern Phoenix special. Join the celebration with holiday activities
for family and friends!
What are some of the most popular family activities this holiday season? What can
the whole family do together to get into the holiday spirit? Where are the best light
displays, musical performances, and hot cocoa found during this season of sharing
the magic of the holiday traditions with friends and loved ones?
Let’s explore some nearby family-friendly holiday activities and special events
together. We’ll find the answers to all of these questions and more!
Christmas at the Farm
Photo from Mother Nature's FB Site
Mother Nature’s Farm's annual “Christmas at the Farm!” Mark this one on your
calendar, my friends, and join the holiday family fun! Visit to play on the Mega Slide,
go for a hayride, do the Spider Web Crawl, go through the Straw Bale Maze, and
enjoy the Bounce House, Pedal Cars, Picture Boards, Bull Roping Area, Corn Pit, Tire
Mountain, Play Houses, Outdoor Games, Santa, the animals!
Hunt for the perfect Christmas tree. Douglas and Noble Firs will be fresh cut for the
picking. Santa Claus will be there for Santa photos on December 14th, and Maneau's
Munchies will be open on the weekends for snack food, including hotdogs, popcorn,
cotton candy, chips, soda, and hot drinks.
When: Monday through Thursday - 3pm to 9pm
Friday, Saturday, Sunday - 9am to 9pm
Santa Visits December 14, 2024 - 9:00 AM to 3:00 PM
Where: Mother Nature’s Farm
1663 E. Baseline Road, Gilbert, AZ
Cost: $15 per person
Photo from Upland Drive FB Site
Christmas on Upland Drive is a 30-year-old tradition! This street takes holiday
decorations to the max, with light displays rivaling some of the country's biggest
towns! Your teens and toddlers alike will be fascinated by how much time and
energy this block of town spends on ideas to decorate every house with special
magic!
When: All through December
Where: 2600 block of Upland Drive, Chandler, AZ
Cost: Free admission
The Lakewood Annual Winter Festival and Boat Parade includes live
entertainment and other family-friendly activities. Celebrate the holiday season with
your whole family!
When: December 15th, 4 to 8 p.m.
Where: Lakewood neighborhood between the two lakes.
Cost: Free admission
Ahwatukee Kids Gingerbread Class
Learn how to decorate four cookies for the Christmas season! A kid's meal and drink
will be provided. Parents must stay with their children—20% off all retail items that
day for those participating.
When: December 14th at 11:20 - 12:30 p.m.
Where: Kneaders Bakery and Cafe
4730 East Ray Road
Cost: $15
Photo from Eventbrite
The Crossroads Nazarene Church is sponsoring a free come-and-go event where you
can enjoy cookies and festive entertainment. A professional photographer will take a
photo of your child with Santa himself!
When: December 7th, at 9 a.m. - 12 p.m.
Particular time for Special Needs: Fri, Dec 6, 6:30 PM
Where: Crossroads Nazarene Church
2950 West Ray Road Chandler, AZ;
Cost: Free
8th Annual Caribbean Christmas 5K Run/Walk
Photo from 13EventProduction
Participate in the 8th Annual Caribbean Christmas 5K Run/Walk this year! This
Caribbean-themed event is for all ages and features live music and good company.
This tropical holiday activity is packed with family fun!
When: December 21
Where: Tempe Beach Park
Cost: Varies. See the website linked above for fees to enter and age groups.
Photo from AllEvents website
Presented by the Arizona Theatre Company, this musical extravaganza is based on
Charles Dickens’s “A Christmas Carol,” the story of Ebenezer Scrooge.
When: December 7-28th
Where: Tempe Center for the Arts
Cost: $33 - $108, depending on seat location
’Tis the Season in Downtown Tempe!
Photo from Downtown Tempe website
So much fun is planned this season, with events nearly every weekend! You can see
more details and the full calendar here.
Enjoy more than 300 booths at the Tempe Festival of the Arts.
When: December 6-8, 2024, from 10AM – 5:30PM on Friday & Saturday, and 10AM –
4:30PM on Sunday
Where: Downtown Tempe, on Mill Avenue between 3rd Street and University Drive,
and on 5th Street between Myrtle and Ash Avenue
Cost: Admission is Free
Another fun event is the Fantasy of Lights Boat Parade
When: December 14, 2024, from 4PM - 9PM
Where: Tempe Town Lake
Cost: Free
The last event of the season is Menorah Lighting.
Menorah Lighting, Downtown Tempe, AZ
This 3rd Annual event is a spectacular sight! The lighting of the Menorah will awe the
little ones and older children of all ages.
When: December 30th, starts at 5:30 p.m.
Where: Downtown Tempe’s Ragsdale-MLK Park (formerly 6th Street Park).
Cost: Free
Photo from Eventbrite- Christmas Glitz
Sparkle and shine at this festive event! Create memories with one of the best
Christmas activities that are free in the area for families and friends. There will be
twinkling lights and a visit from Santa! Spend an evening full of holiday cheer with
your little ones and teens.
Bring a gift for a child in foster care and receive one entry into our many raffles.
When: December 14th, 5 - 9 p.m.
Where: 1660 S. Alma School Road, Ste 114, Mesa, AZ
Cost: Free admission
Noelfest - Drosselmeyer’s Clockwork Toys
Photo from Eventbrite- Noelfest
At this year’s Noelfest, Drosselmeyer’s Clockwork Toys are coming to life. There will be
art displays, a Christmas labyrinth, and live entertainment. Head out for a spectacular
show and immerse yourself in the arts and crafts activities for any age. It will be an
unforgettable day at Sahuaro Ranch Park!
When: December 21st at 2 p.m.
Where: 5708 West Union Hills Drive, Glendale, AZ
Cost: Bargain tickets (while they last) are $7
General Admission is $19
World of Illumination - Enchanted Safari
Photo from World of Illumination
Gear up for one wild holiday adventure with your host, Toukie Toucan! Hear the jingle
of the jungle at Enchanted Safari, produced by World of Illumination. A host of exotic
animals will be there to greet you from peacocks to piranhas. Soar among the clouds
as you fly with reindeer then outrun a T-Rex as you whiz past a land lost in time.
Come face to face with the King of the Jungle and beware of the Tunnel of Tentacles
where you’ll fend off sharks and jellyfish trying to steal your holiday spirit. Your
journey ends at Santa’s Bazaar, where all your new animal friends will be decking the
halls!
When: November 15 - December 29, Tuesdays - Sundays - 6-10 pm
Where: Tempe Diablo Stadium - 2200 W. Alameda Dr., Tempe, Az 85282
Cost: Starts at $39.99 per vehicle
Get out and enjoy this special season with some ideas to create some very festive
holiday and Christmas memories with those closest to you. Whether it’s a light show,
Santa sightings, or a day trip to visit a farm, make it a family event that all will enjoy.
Our community goes all out for Christmas, with many places to find Christmas
cookies, candy canes, holiday cards, and more! You can even get that holiday card
photo with Santa Claus in plenty of time to mail it before the big day! Find a place to
wear your matching pajamas, see twinkling lights, and visit a neighborhood with
lights on the roof and a wreath on every front door! As you share your gifts and spend
time together, don’t forget to shine your light on others and invite them to have fun
with you and your family!
Jungle Roots wishes your entire family a safe, fun, and exceptional holiday season.
We can’t wait to see you in the next year for all your dental or orthodontic
appointments.
Happy Holidays!
Simply – YES!
Bedtime is a particularly important time to brush. Think of everything that went into your
mouth during the day - maybe cereal and milk or eggs and toast for breakfast, then a
sandwich, chips, soda, and fruit for lunch. Perhaps dinner was spaghetti and meatballs
with lots of parmesan cheese or a delicious burrito. Let's not forget any snacks or
desserts you ate!
No matter what you ate, some of the food particles may still be lingering in your mouth.
Do you feel like taking a chance that these won't start creating the perfect environment
to cause tooth decay or the beginning stages of gingivitis? That's what happens if you
don't take the time to brush your teeth before you go to bed.
We all know that bedtime brings many things to do before we go to sleep, and it's easy
to jump into bed without the two minutes it takes to brush our teeth thoroughly. But
finishing the day with a clean mouth sets the tone for a good night's sleep. It removes
the food remnants between the teeth and the harmful bacteria floating around our
mouths and any plaque beginning to form.
Plaque is that film that forms on your teeth from the combination of food, saliva,
bacteria, and fluids in your mouth. Bacteria in the plaque on our teeth lead to acid
production, and sticky plaque buildup can damage the enamel of our teeth and lead to
cavities. When it sits on the tooth's surface all night, it can do this damage without being
disturbed.
Plaque can affect your oral health in many ways:
● Makes your teeth look yellow
● Causes bad breath
● Allows harmful bacteria to accumulate
● Causes dental caries (cavities) and gingivitis
If plaque is not removed within one day, it can become tartar – a hard, yellow, or brown
substance that tightly adheres to the teeth. Tartar can only be removed by a dental
professional.
Gingivitis is an infection and swelling of the gums caused by bacterial plaque. If it is not
treated, it can become periodontitis, which may eventually cause bone loss where the
tooth sits or even tooth loss. Even more dangerous is that the infection can become
systemic, affecting the whole body.
We all know that the foundation of a good oral hygiene routine is brushing twice daily,
flossing once daily, and seeing the dentist every six months for regular cleanings and
check-ups. Did you know these habits are most easily started when your child is still a
baby?
When an infant's teeth have yet to erupt, wiping their gums off with a soft cloth will help
establish their good oral habits from the beginning. As they begin to get their primary
teeth, begin using a soft toothbrush instead of the cloth.
Fluoride-free toothpaste, the size of a rice grain, can be used until your child is old
enough to know how to spit it out after cleansing and not to swallow. It’s okay to switch
to toothpaste with fluoride once they can spit it out, usually around three years old.
Sometime between the ages of three to six, they can start using a full pea-sized amount
of toothpaste with fluoride. (If you are worried about fluoride, we discussed some helpful
information about it, safety concerns, and best practices in this article.)
Beginning these habits young will help establish a routine and the habit of caring for
their teeth from an early age, which will probably stay with them throughout their lives.
Choosing healthy snack foods is essential for keeping children's teeth sparkly clean.
Even milk or juices can cause damage when left in the mouth, and this is especially true
at bedtime. If you give your child a snack or a drink other than water after they've
brushed before bedtime, have them rinse with water and spit to remove any residual on
their teeth - or even brush again!
Many of us will be enjoying friends and family during the upcoming months of
celebrating the holidays. Yummy food concoctions we haven't had since last year will be
calling to us. We will consume holiday cookies, pies, and tasty beverages.
Unfortunately, these can all leave sugars in our mouths, which leads to bacteria, which
leads to plaque formation, which leads to… You get the idea!
Maintaining our usual oral hygiene routine may be difficult while visiting with others,
traveling, or staying overnight in unfamiliar places. Here are a few tips to help keep
dental health a priority while celebrating the busy holiday season:
● Keep a new toothbrush for every family member in a pre-packed travel case with
fluoride toothpaste and floss.
● Make a cute sign to post on the bathroom mirror where you stay to remind you
and the family to brush morning and night.
● Set alarms on your phone or watch to remind you and your family to brush and
floss.
● Carry sugarless gum with Xylitol. This helps remove bits of food and fights
harmful bacteria.
Everyone should get in the habit of brushing twice daily, flossing once daily, and getting
regularly scheduled dental check-ups every six months. These easy but essential steps
can help prevent problems with dental health. Helping your child remember and practice
these habits can establish life-long oral health.
Brushing before bed is so important. It's like running the dishwasher to clean all the dirty
dishes you've accumulated during the day, except it's your teeth you're cleaning, not the
dishes. The next morning, like opening the dishwasher, your mouth feels cleaner and
ready to begin the day with a fresher start.
Jungle Roots is here to support you. Talk with us about your concerns about your child's
oral hygiene. We can help!
It’s time to get ready for the holidays! Fall is like a countdown to all that is festive and fun! Whether it’s a long hike on a Sunday morning or spending an afternoon doing a creative art project, let’s keep those minds and hands busy and those brain waves flowing.
Here are some ideas for bringing out the artist in your children!
You’ll need:
White paper (card stock works best)
Paint
Pencil
Cotton swabs
Draw around your child’s hand and forearm for the tree trunk, and then have them paint this brown. Use cotton swabs to paint on leaves as shown.
These would also be adorable place cards with one finger as the trunk and then the colored dots on a small folded card for each place setting at the Thanksgiving table.
Plan a day outdoors, or around the neighborhood. Look for items that you’ll only find in the autumn. Take photos of the things you’ve discovered and share them with the group when the hunt ends. Make it a game with your family, or take a few families and try to find the items before the others do!
Here are some ideas for the list:
Fall wreaths
Cornucopias
Mums
Sunflowers
Pumpkins
Corn stalks
Mushrooms
Animal tracks
Feathers
Pinecones
Spiders
Cut shapes from tissue or construction paper in all the different fall colors.
Paste them into a large drawing of a pumpkin with glue or a glue stick for a colorful decoration for your home.
Kids have been making yellow, green, and red apple prints for years to resemble all kinds of apples. Have you ever thought of using them as a template for pumpkins? Look at these examples of apple stamps made into jack-o-lanterns!
Find two pieces of wood or plastic pipe and dress it in old clothes, and add a cloth bag stuffed with filler and painted with a “stitchy” grin to make the head! Pumpkins also make great scarecrow heads.
Slip some straw in the arms and neck, place a hat on the head, and have a silent guardian in your yard to greet visitors this fall! If you can’t get your scarecrow into the ground, try a large pot filled with sand or a bale of hay to anchor your stuffed creation!
No sooner has Thanksgiving come and gone than the Christmas holiday season will begin! While the adults break out the decorations for the house on the first day of December (or before!), the kids can gather the materials and supplies for crafts.
Everything from cardboard, sticks, stickers, pipe cleaners, paper plates, colored paper, and googly eyes can be used to make projects to decorate their space. Kids love spending time with their family and friends doing fun activities.
Here are some fun ideas for your family this holiday season.
This is a great craft, but also a great and inexpensive gift for classmates at Christmas.
Help your little ones cut out trees in a shape like this or just a plain triangle from green construction paper or printed craft paper. Assist them in accordion folding the paper horizontally, using a hole punch to put a hole through the center of the folds. Add a yellow cardboard or construction paper star on top.
Place a festive pencil or straw through the holes to make a trunk. You can put the “trunk” into a block of foam and add multiple trees for a forest. Your child can also give the trees with their festive pencil or straw trunks as small gifts!
This is a great way to keep the kiddos from saying, “How much longer ‘til Christmas?”
Plenty of commercially made Advent calendars are available, but it would be fun to help them make one for you to fill!
This one is just a simple foam core board or thick paper with 24 cups attached in the shape of a tree. Each cup is covered with a red or green napkin or piece of tissue paper and held in place with a rubber band. Numbers on the covers count down until the big day!
The star on top can be made of yellow paper and pasted or drawn with markers or crayons.
The cups can contain candy, small toys, coins, easy-to-do crafts, or inspirational sayings for the child to find daily. Use your imagination and your child’s favorites for ideas!
Then, half the fun is punching through the tissue paper to get to each day's surprise!
How about hosting a night for all of your family or your child’s friends? This is an inexpensive way to spend an evening. The kids can watch the movie, reaching to grab some popcorn or cookies.
The parents can catch up, all while sipping some cider or cocoa.
This is the stuff you’ll remember forever, and when you think of it, it always brings a smile and a sense of nostalgia. It’s an “almost free” event!
These creative pinecone and bow decorations are something you could hang and leave all winter long! They bring a touch of nature to any room, and the craft is something your kids can make in minutes.
You can buy some jute twine and pine cones at most craft stores - or take a day trip to the mountains to collect the pine cones! Then, use your creative talents to make beautiful bows of your favorite holiday ribbon. Gather these supplies together and help your child tie on the twine and the bows. It’s as simple as that!
People need assistance more during the holidays than at any other time. That’s why we gather to celebrate the year we’ve had and the one to come and lend a hand to the less fortunate.
Get your family together and volunteer. This does not have to be serving at a free soup kitchen or reading to the senior population at a retirement home, although these are great ideas. Discuss what your family would like to participate in this year to give back and share what blessings you’ve been given.
Share your talents, give funds, help out a neighbor on a Saturday afternoon, take a meal to a shut-in, or dog sit for a relative going out of town.
Many areas have toy donation spots where you can leave new toys. Food banks are great places to give money or make food contributions. Many companies play Secret Santa to a family in need or have an Angel Tree to buy necessities for one. This helps you feel like you are a part of a greater good as everyone banding together has a reach farther than you have alone.
Capturing the meaning of the holiday season while having fun with family and friends makes life worth living. The quality time spent with loved ones during this time sticks with us forever and creates memories that can’t be replaced or taken away.
From all of us at Jungle Roots - We hope you enjoy the holidays and make every minute count!
Why are dental terms sometimes so scary? Even calling the sharp teeth in the
front of the mouth “canines” can make you think of a snarling wolf with dripping
fangs! Frightening, huh?
We will examine some dental conditions whose names sound alarming, and let
you know if they are really something to worry about. These names do have a
purpose: they help our dental professionals know exactly what they are treating!
Now, that’s more than a mouthful of words! This term simply means extra teeth.
They can be found anywhere in the mouth and occur more often when the baby
teeth should come out, and the permanent teeth erupt. Another word for
supernumerary teeth is hyperdontia, and it’s seen twice as often in males than in
females.
The extra teeth can come in different types and shapes and can sometimes cause
pain in the teeth and swollen gums. They can also cause pressure on the teeth
near them and make them crooked. Dr. Culp will examine your child’s extra tooth
or teeth and discuss treatment options if they cause an issue with your child’s oral
health.
Oh, no! Where are my wisdom teeth?! Wisdom teeth (the third molars) got their
name because they usually break through behind the second molars in the late
teens or early twenties. At this age, people are considered to be “older and wiser”
than they were before. This is how the term “wisdom teeth” came to be.
Anytime something is missing, you may worry that there is a problem. However,
missing wisdom teeth is one instance where “missing” is just fine. Genetics
determines whether or not some people are missing one or more of their wisdom
teeth. While wisdom teeth don’t always need to be removed, if they cause pain or
come in irregularly, Dr. Culp will discuss options for removing them. If yours are
missing, that just means you don’t have to consider whether or not they will need
to be removed!
Yow! Talk about a scary sounding dental issue! This interesting genetic trait is
seen in Asian and Native American populations, and in Eskimo groups. It is
another reason to support the Alaskan land bridge theory of migration from the
Asian continent.
Dens evaginatus occurs on the chewing surface of the premolars and molars. It
looks like an extra bump or cusp and may not need to be treated. However, these
areas are more easily worn away while grinding foods. If the pulp chamber is
open to the surface, it can be painful (the nerve is exposed!), and the tooth pulp is
more susceptible to dental decay and other sources of infection.
If your child is complaining of pain or other bothersome issues, please set up an
appointment so they can be evaluated by Dr. Culp and properly treated if
necessary.
Didn’t we just cover this hair-raising topic? Nope, this is the opposite of our last
condition. Dens in dente is an anomaly in which the enamel of one or more teeth
folds into the underlying dentin as the teeth develop. The tooth can even consist
of what looks like a tooth inside a tooth!
To the untrained eye, the teeth and gums may not look any different than the
other visible teeth, but it sure looks cool on an X-ray! Dr. Culp and his team can
identify dens in dente this way and discuss whether treatment will be necessary
or if we’ll use the “wait and watch” approach.
Genetics, infectious disease, or trauma are some possible causes that may lead to
the rare condition. As with dens evaginatus, anthropologists have tracked the
evidence of the migration of humans from Asia to America through dens
invaginatus, as well.
This sounds like dental decay can sneak in even before a tooth erupts - and the
thought of yucky stuff lurking under your gums is haunting, right? But the truth
of this condition is that bacteria isn’t involved at all! Perhaps the truth is stranger:
the dentin inside the tooth is defective, but the enamel looks (and often is)
normal.
As teeth erupt, there is a natural resorption process that must happen, where the
body breaks down and absorbs tooth tissue so the adult teeth can grow in. Rarely
the healthy tooth structure of the new tooth is affected by abnormal tooth
resorption, and this causes pre-eruptive dental caries in the layer below the
enamel.
Dr. Culp will see these on a routine X-ray during an exam and discuss treatment
options if necessary. When they do come to the surface, we may see tooth
discoloration. Your child may never experience any effects, and our team will
monitor the issue and treat it if needed.
Oooo! Bones make you think of skeletons this time of year, but we are talking
about bits of bone over a molar as it erupts!
The human body is amazingly aware of foreign material or things that don’t
belong and can effectively eliminate them, but sometimes a bit of bone is left
over and covers the top of a molar as it emerges. Dr. Culp gives this example:
“When coral is taken out of the sea, the creatures that built the structure die, but
the skeletal remains persist. In this case, the bone-forming cells died, and what’s
left is their product - bone.”
This is also called eruption sequestrum. Usually, it isn’t a problem and may even
resolve without treatment. If it is causing irritation, the bit of bone can be
removed.
Sometimes, a sequestrum of bone can happen in other circumstances, and this
can cause a bit of bone in your mouth to protrude, and it may even poke out of
your gum. This type of sequestrum of bone can be caused by tooth extraction,
osteomyelitis, or trauma.
Common symptoms your child may complain of are:
● Feeling a sharp protrusion from the gum
● Irritation, tenderness, and swelling
● A white bump under the gum that is hard
If this occurs, the best course of action is to call and make an appointment at
Jungle Roots for an exam.
Why did the vampire go to the dentist?
To get his fangs fixed!
No, most humans do not have fangs, but we do have teeth in some form or another!
Most of the dental conditions we discussed here are not something we can control
for our children, and most of the time, they are not an emergency or critical to their
overall health. However, it is a good idea to be aware of them and monitor them. If
Jungle Roots is your child’s dental home, Dr. Culp will find and evaluate these
conditions during their regular exams.
Although these conditions cannot be prevented, the leading causes of oral disease
are largely preventable. Proper care, including cleaning the teeth and gums with
toothpaste twice a day, flossing once a day, and eating nutrient-rich foods low in
sugar, is essential to minimize the risk of tooth decay and gum disease, the most
common diseases that affect the mouth.
Our dental team is happy to provide professional cleanings of baby teeth (primary
teeth) and permanent teeth and teach your child how to keep their mouth clean and
free from dental caries. We want everyone to enjoy the best possible dental health!
We’ll see you “in the jungle!”
What's the first thing you think of when you hear the word "orthodontics?" Preteens and teenagers in braces, right? Well, the scope of orthodontics goes beyond the brackets and wires of the teenage years. At Jungle Roots, we offer orthodontic services for every age, and the process begins with a complimentary comprehensive orthodontic exam!
Complimentary. How many times have you heard this word lately? Not often. Nowadays, nothing is free. That's not the case here. Our orthodontists want you to have a complete and thorough analysis, including all of the diagnostic records. This allows us to create an individualized treatment plan that fits your needs or those of your child.
During the complimentary comprehensive examination, we will spend as much time as necessary explaining the treatment we recommend. This visit includes discussing what
is involved, the benefits of the treatment, and why we suggest the plan's individual aspects. Of course, we will answer any questions that arise during this examination.
We'll discuss options that coincide with your treatment goals, lifestyle, and what is financially feasible. Our conservative approach to orthodontic care sets us apart, and we design your plan with your health and best interests in mind.
The same place your child has been coming for dental visits is where we provide their orthodontic visits, all in one dental home. You and your child are already comfortable with our environment and staff, so you've already hurdled the obstacles of a new space and different faces.
Anytime!
Dental professionals may recommend that children have their first comprehensive examination by an orthodontist as early as the age of seven. Dr. Culp watches closely for dental conditions that will require an exam during these years of development. This exam allows the orthodontist to observe the growth and development of the jaw and note any indications of potential problems as their adult teeth erupt. If caught at this early age, many issues can be easier to treat than if they are not found until later in their teenage years.
Anyone who needs it can successfully receive orthodontic treatment at any age. That is why we also treat older children, teenagers, and adults! We will create an individualized plan, whether it is your first time receiving orthodontic treatments, if your child needs phase one or two treatment, or you’ve previously received treatments but your bite has changed over time. We can also coordinate treatment if you are moving from another location.
Straight teeth allow a beautiful smile to shine and make it easier to keep those teeth clean, making them less prone to decay and disease. But they are only one of the pleasing results of orthodontic treatment. The goal is to bring the entire mouth into optimal alignment.
So, a treatment plan may include more than just braces or invisible aligners. We'll attach your appliances and provide instructions on caring for them, dental wax, rubber bands,
mouthguards for those in sports, or anything else needed to effectively complete your treatment.
You'll visit for regular adjustments and assessments to ensure the treatment is on track and optimal for your successful treatment.
Once you or your child have reached complete alignment, we'll remove your appliances. We want to ensure that these changes to your mouth are permanent, so you will wear a retainer to ensure everything finishes healing and your teeth stay put.
We understand that the financial aspects of orthodontic treatment may be a large part of the decision-making process.
When you set up the initial orthodontic exam for you or your child, we will also do a complimentary benefits check to help you navigate any insurance issues or questions. This happens before you even step through the door for the exam.
We will prepare and guide you through financial planning and develop a customized proposal to clarify all your options. We can help by offering tailored payment plans so that you or your child can begin treatment and continue to move forward.
The financial department at Jungle Roots has great insight into what benefits insurance companies provide and will work with any insurance company that will assign benefits to Jungle Roots as your provider. Our experts can assist you with more flexible payment options, like maximizing your FSA and accepting Care Credit.
It is convenient and comfortable to have your child’s favorite highly competent dentists and orthodontists under the same roof!
You already know our facility's doctors and well-qualified staff who make your visits smooth and worry-free. You trust our friendly and familiar faces to provide care only in your best interest. Our team has a direct line of open communication, so we know what happens with each appointment.
We coordinate dental and orthodontic appointments. When your child is a patient of Dr. Culp, their dental cleanings are included with their orthodontic treatment package.
We are privileged to provide dentistry for your children and orthodontics for your entire family and would love to have you be part of our Jungle Roots dental home. Please contact us if you are ready to schedule a complimentary orthodontic consultation
Humans and other animals are not the only ones who rely on their teeth to tear and crunch their food. Many insects or bugs have some of the same mouthparts as humans to bite and chew food for nourishment. Others have different ways of eating their food.
We’ll discuss some of these bugs to find out what mouthparts they have and how they use their teeth.
What Do Bugs Eat and How Do They Eat It?
A bug’s diet usually determines whether or not they have teeth or some other form of mouthparts to eat. The four most commonly known mouthparts distinguish and separate the kinds of insects into their orders or families. Bugs are known to be able to eat all kinds of organic materials, plants, animal tissues, liquids, and even foods spit out by other animals.
The Biting Insects
First, it will help to know the names of the five structures used for biting in some insects:
Image from Wikimedia Commons
A grasshopper is an insect that uses its mouthparts to cut, pinch, chew, or grind food. Grasshoppers most often eat plants, so when they decide to eat a tasty leaf, they grab a part of it with their pincers, bring it into their mouth, and the mandible chews it up to be digested by the insect. Grasshoppers are also known to eat smaller bugs.
A stag beetle is another cool bug with pincers on the outside of its body. Their long antler-like pincers grab their food and bring it into their mouthparts to be eaten. The pincers are very hard and hold onto the prey or plant being consumed, while the stag beetle’s mandible chews and breaks down the food for digestion.
Cockroaches are one of the oldest groups of insects on earth, having existed for more than 300 million years! Like other insects, they have three-part bodies: a head, thorax, and abdomen. The cockroach’s head contains its mouthparts. Much like the grasshopper and the stag beetle, the pincers bring food to the mouth, and the mandibles chew and help their food get further into their digestive system.
Insects With Piercing-Sucking Mouthparts
Insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts use a stylet, or puncturing part, coming from their mouth to punch into plant or animal tissue. The stylet allows the fluids to be sucked back into the insect, and this is how they get their nourishment. This type of insect is usually associated with disease transmission in plants and animals. Let’s explore a couple of these types of bugs.
When you describe how this type of insect gets nourished, the first bug that probably comes to mind is the mosquito. It uses a special mouthpart called a proboscis which is a long tube that goes into and under your skin to suck out blood. In return, it injects saliva back into your skin and causes a reaction to occur, such as a red bump and itching.
Fleas burrow into their food sources in much the same way. They used their saw-like mandibles to cut through the skin and pierce it with their proboscis (stylet), then suck the blood from the animal. They then secrete their saliva back into the bloodstream and tissues of the donor. Pets are most likely to attract fleas, and pets can carry them indoors onto humans.
Insects That Sponge Food
The way a housefly feeds is called sponging. If the fly finds something that it wants to eat, it will vomit, or regurgitate, on that item and let the digestive enzymes in the fluid break down the food and liquify it. Then, the housefly will sink its specialized proboscis and stylet into the liquid and suck it directly into its stomach.
Insects That Siphon Their Food
The final type of insect mouthpart is the siphoning one. Butterflies and moths uncoil their long tube-like proboscis and insert it into where the nectar is in the flower. It then siphons out the fluids found in there, just like humans use a straw. The mouthparts of a butterfly or moth are referred to as siphoning ones.
Takeaways
Humans and other animals are not the only living things with teeth. Many insects, or bugs, use their mouthparts the same as we use our teeth. Some parts of their mouths even have the same names or are close to the same names as ours – like the maxillae and the mandible. Many people do not like bugs because they can bite like humans and other animals do - but they often bite us!
We only see humans at Jungle Roots, but it’s fun to investigate and discuss other species with teeth! Examining some bugs' teeth will really make you think the next time you see a housefly on your hamburger or a flea on the family pet.
Call us at Jungle Roots to schedule a cleaning and check-up with our professional staff, and we’ll ensure you are doing your best to keep your own mouthparts in great shape!
When someone hears "going to the orthodontist," the first thing most people think about
is getting braces, although orthodontic treatments may include much more than just
braces. Many middle and high school students are fitted with traditional brackets and
wires to correct and guide the adjustment of their teeth, while others opt for clear
aligners to do the same job. We also see many adults wearing braces or invisible
aligners to help straighten their otherwise healthy teeth. Sometimes though, you will see
a child who is 7, 8, or 9 years old wearing braces. We'll talk about why someone would
benefit from orthodontic treatments at various ages and how we can use early
intervention to help minimize or even eliminate the need for future treatments.
Early Orthodontic Start Times
An initial orthodontic evaluation should happen when your child is six or seven. Why is
this age so significant?
Usually, by age seven, a child has started losing baby teeth, and some adult teeth and
the first set of molars have started growing in. An orthodontic visit at this time helps
ensure that your child's smile is forming as healthily as possible.
Some kiddos may not need orthodontic treatment, some may need to be evaluated
again at a later date, while others may need early orthodontic treatment. Why would
they benefit from this?
Early treatment can prevent or minimize the need for other orthodontic procedures in
the future. Some issues can be corrected most easily at this age, while the jaw and
facial bones are still growing and malleable and the teeth are still erupting, so the bones
can be ideally shaped and front teeth can be repositioned if not in alignment.
This time is perfect for an orthodontic evaluation of your child, so we can identify
potential issues with your child's teeth and bite. We devise a plan of action if we feel
they may need treatment. Here are some of the potential issues we look for:
Malocclusions ("bad bites"), such as:
● Not enough room for teeth to grow
● Excessive space between teeth
● Congenitally missing teeth
● Extra teeth
● Overbites
● Underbites
● Crossbites
● Buck teeth (the front top teeth protrude out)
There are other reasons early intervention is beneficial, and they can include:
● Early loss of baby teeth
● Baby teeth haven't fallen out because there are no adult teeth underneath.
● Mouth breathing
● Speech difficulty
● Problems chewing, biting, and swallowing
● Facial features are imbalanced
Some Potential Treatments
Early orthodontic treatment usually occurs sometime between 7 and 10 years of age
and may include braces on the front teeth. The orthodontist may prescribe braces
and
fixed or removable appliances to gently reposition the teeth and encourage the correct
development of the muscles and jawbone, palate, and teeth if necessary.
Our team can determine if your child's teeth have room to grow in the available space.
Space maintainers and palatal expanders can help hold space or create new space.
For example, the orthodontist may need to add a space retainer if a tooth falls out too
early and the adult tooth is not yet there to take its place. This apparatus can be fixed or
removable and helps the teeth on each side of the space stay in place until the new
tooth erupts.
Palate expanders help widen the roof of a child’s mouth. They provide more room for
the teeth to erupt, help form the structure of the face, and assist with the correct
development of the nasal airways.
In the case of overcrowding, extractions may be necessary if the primary teeth have not
fallen out.
After treatment, our doctor may prescribe a retainer to be worn only at night. It ensures
the appliance is kept in place when the child is less active. Sometimes, children who
receive early intervention will not need any further treatment. Often though, early
treatment is the first of two phases of treatment, and they will receive a second phase to
correct bite and alignment issues once the remaining permanent teeth have erupted.
Conventional Orthodontic Start Times
If your child did not need and/or receive early treatment - or is receiving two phases of
treatment - conventional treatment to address crooked teeth or a misaligned bite is
usually done between the ages of 11-14. This is a great time for treatment because all of
the adult teeth have usually grown in, but the teeth and jaw bones can be aligned and
corrected more easily while the child grows into adolescence.
It’s Never Too Late!
The orthodontist at Jungle Roots is available for both pediatric patients and adults.
Older teens and adults who were not introduced to orthodontia early are not too old to
benefit from treatment. Braces and other intervention techniques for aligning teeth are
great for any age! They can improve oral health because, over time, crowded teeth can
lead to more serious dental issues like tooth decay and gum disease, while poor
alignment can impact speech and chewing and even contribute to headaches.
While you can start orthodontic treatments at any time, sometimes older teens and
adults may find that the process takes longer for them to see results. The teeth do
not
move as quickly as before puberty, as the bones are less malleable. Braces and
aligners may take a bit longer to provide results, but it's never too late to get straight
teeth and correct imperfections in your smile to improve your overall oral health.
The Plan
We offer complementary comprehensive orthodontic evaluations. Some children do not
need braces or orthodontic treatment! For others, our team may decide only to monitor
your child's teeth and jaw structures, or we may recommend treatment for any issues.
If your child needs early treatment (around seven years old), it usually takes a shorter
time to correct and may also be less expensive. This is because we create a custom
treatment plan to help mold the mouth of someone actively growing and to prevent an
issue from becoming worse, rather than waiting to treat an older teen or adult whose
bones are less malleable.
For any patient, no matter what age they begin treatment, our providers can help you
and will craft a treatment plan customized to your patient’s needs and your budget.
Takeaways
Our goal at Jungle Roots Dentistry and Orthodontics is to help your child enjoy optimal
oral health. This may include a recommendation to straighten your child's teeth in order
to prevent poor oral health or more expensive and time-consuming procedures in the
future. Aligning teeth and guiding the formation of the jawbone while it is malleable aids
the natural, optimal development. We can help prevent tight spaces that encourage
food particles to be trapped, provide appliances to maintain the correct formation of the
bite, and expand the palate to deter medical issues. Our orthodontic team is privileged
to see patients of any age and help care for the framework and oral health behind those
beautiful smiles!
Did you know that chewing and eating are not the only uses for teeth? Humans and
other animals use teeth for this purpose, but tribes around the world have always used
animal teeth for many different things. Let's explore some of these uses throughout
history.
North American Tribes and Their Use of Animal Teeth
Native American tribes have always used all parts of an animal to craft household
utensils, weapons, clothing accessories, and jewelry, just to mention a few. People from
these cultures used teeth to craft jewelry accents, such as beads and pendants for
necklaces. Even now, some of the North American tribes accept animals that wildlife
personnel acquire from deaths due to vehicular accidents and poachers.
The Significance of Animal Teeth to Native American Tribes
Because Native Americans believe in honoring the life of an animal, they believe no part
of one that has been killed should be wasted and that using all of an animal’s parts
relates to renewal and continuation of life. Some tribes see the animal's body parts as a
means to ask the animal's spirit to share its wisdom with the one who took its life.
With this concept in mind, remember that teeth are not simply seen as decorative or
valuable. Some native tribes believed that the spirit retained in the animal's teeth would
share wisdom for finding food when hunting and patience during any conflict within the
family. Some tribes referred to it as "the wisdom of the teeth!"
Using Animal Teeth for Decoration
Crow girl relaxing on a horse after the morning parade at the Crow Fair. Crow Agency, Montana, August 17, 1979. Photo by
Michael Crummett. Montana Folklife Survey Collection
Elk Teeth
An elk's two incisor teeth do not decay or break down. The Northern Plains natives used
these teeth for decoration and as a type of currency for trade.
The photo above clearly shows the use of elk's teeth all over this little girl's dress from
the Crow tribe of Montana. Clothing with these teeth as decoration has usually only
been worn on ceremonial occasions.
Think of how long it may have taken for a hunter to save enough teeth to decorate this
dress! Sometimes, the teeth were added to the garment over time. They may have
collected them slowly and added them at a particular time in the girl's life.
Each tooth has a single hole drilled through it so that it may be sewn onto the dress.
These types of clothing display the status of the family – their hunting ability and ability
to trade with others, and stand out as a symbol of their identity as Plains women.
The teeth of an elk are still highly valued and represent wealth. They are used during
festivities to adorn traditional regalia (dress representing a particular culture or belief)
and are often used in jewelry.
Coyote Teeth
Many tribes used coyote teeth to create art or to decorate clothing for ceremonies and
festivals. Early teeth had holes drilled into them to allow animal sinew or string to be
passed through them to make jewelry or decorations for clothing. Later, some tribes
added silversmithing to their art and capped the teeth with silver, no longer needing to
make holes in the teeth.
Using Animal Teeth for Tools
Some tribes used the razor-sharp teeth of red-bellied piranha to make saws, hunting
tools, and implements to use in their cooking areas.
Other tribes made knives and other sharp tools from beavers' teeth to cut and saw
things since their teeth are naturally sharp and extremely durable. Scientists have found
the incisors of beavers and arctic foxes crafted into tools in archaeological digs. Early
tribes used them for manual labor and food preparation.
How Teeth Were Are Used in Other Cultures
This dog tooth necklace is in the Timothy S.Y. Lam Museum of Anthropology, Winston-Salem, NC.
Until the 20th century, some parts of the world used animal teeth as money! In the
Solomon Islands, people used dolphin and bat teeth as payment.
Wild pig teeth were used as currency in Papua New Guinea until the early 20th century.
In pre-colonial days, people also used dog teeth as exchange payments, and the teeth
had to be of a specific size and quality for trading and jewelry crafting.
In the Fiji Islands, sperm whale teeth were the most valuable form of currency. Because
they are rare, these whale teeth are still used as Fiji bridal gifts and are sacred objects.
Size determines the value of each tooth, with the larger ones being more prized. Before
1900, sperm whale teeth could purchase property and other goods, and, even the
"elimination" of a rival chieftain!
Animal Teeth in the Mesolithic Period
In several crypts and graves in south Sweden, archaeologists found animal teeth that
made up intricately designed jewelry items and clothing. It seems that if the apparel was
decorated with more than one type of animal's teeth, the more significant that person
was in society. There were beads made of the teeth of red deer, wild boar, elk, bears,
and a few other animals that decorated the clothes, such as belts, buttons, and, in rare
instances, hair or headpieces.
Interestingly, the scientists also determined by the teeth that were used on the clothing
that some of the people were not native to the area where they were buried.
Mentions of Teeth in Ancient Native Folklore
We have looked at some of the fascinating beliefs about teeth throughout time before,
and many tribes of North and South America have passed down their own dental
traditions. Here are just a few examples:
Chippewa - This tribe paints baby teeth with charcoal, throws them to the west, and
asks the child's grandmother to help their adult teeth grow strong.
Teton - Children bury their teeth in the entryway of their homes, and anyone walking
over them is thought to help them grow a new tooth.
Dene Yellowknives Tribe - Children give their lost teeth to their mothers or
grandmothers to put into trees. The family then dances around the tree to encourage
the adult teeth to grow as straight as a tree.
Tribes of Chile and Costa Rica - The first baby tooth lost is gold-plated or coated with
some other precious metal and used as a charm or an earring.
Navajo – The children bury their lost teeth on the east side of sagebrush or rabbitbrush,
or near a pinyon tree on the southeast side of the property, away from their home,
hoping it will help their teeth grow strong.
Key Animal Teeth Takeaways
Native Americans and tribes worldwide have used animal teeth for various purposes in
their daily lives and ceremonies. Whether for decoration, tool formation, currency, or
trading, animal teeth have been very significant to cultures around the world, throughout
history.
Nowadays, teeth don’t have the same uses, but still impact our lives! We still need to
keep our teeth healthy, and people care about having a beautiful smile. At Jungle Roots,
we are here to help you on your journey to your best smile! We love helping people
enjoy beautiful, healthy teeth. Contact us today for an appointment!
Preventive strategies in dental care include any procedure or habit that helps your
child maintain good oral health. Taking care of your child's teeth and gums starts
when their first tooth arrives and continues throughout life. Interestingly, the habits
and feelings that are formed in childhood often create a path to either good or poor
dental health over a person’s entire lifetime. Let's discuss some essential practices to
keep your kiddo's smile gleaming and bright!
Benefits of Preventive Dental Care
Regular dental care, with prevention in mind, can improve your child's oral health
and overall well-being. Proper dental care is crucial to maintaining whole-body
health. It lowers your child's risk for gum disease, tooth decay, and other serious
dental issues. With regular exams and cleanings, dental problems can be prevented
and identified early, helping minimize more extensive treatments and costs.
Seeing the dentist regularly is so important that most dental insurance plans cover
preventive services such as dental cleanings and exams at least every six months.
Daily Practices for Good Oral Hygiene
Regular Brushing and Flossing
One of the most important things you can teach your child to do is brush their teeth
twice a day. In the beginning, you will need to brush their teeth in order to clean
each surface of every tooth well. It is also a good idea to brush their tongue to
remove bacteria. When they get older and can properly handle a toothbrush, they
can begin to brush their teeth themselves, with your supervision, until they are
finally able to brush completely on their own. It is best to use soft-bristled
toothbrushes and replace your child's toothbrush every three to four months or
when the bristles fray. Here is a great guide to teaching your kids how to brush their
teeth.
Children who may swallow toothpaste (usually those under 3 years old) should use
fluoride-free toothpaste that is only the size of a grain of rice. Once they can
consistently spit out toothpaste, then they can begin using the same amount of
fluoride toothpaste. A child between 3 and 6 years old can begin using a pea-size
amount.
Flossing at least once daily to clean the spaces between teeth can prevent food from
getting trapped, remove buildup, and help prevent gum disease. This should start
once your child has two teeth next to each other. As with brushing, you will need to
floss for your child for the first several years until they have the coordination to
handle the floss themselves.
A Balanced Diet Makes Stronger Teeth and Healthier Gums
Eating the right foods and avoiding the ones that are harmful to your teeth is another
way to incorporate healthy habits. Following the suggestions below will not only lead
to healthier smiles but can improve and maintain their overall health:
● Avoid foods with added sugars.
● Discourage acidic soft drinks and beverages, especially those with sugar added.
● Limit lots of snacks.
● Drink plenty of water throughout the day.
● Eat various veggies and fruits to ensure they get enough vitamins and
minerals.
Preventive Dental Services In the Office
Dental Exams Twice a Year
We recommend that children first see a dentist around the time their first tooth
erupts - or by the time they turn one year old. Regular dental exams should usually
occur every six months for cleanings and checkups until they are old enough to
“graduate” to an adult dentist. Regular dental exams and cleanings will keep that
smile healthy and bright!
Establishing a “dental home” allows children to feel comfortable in our office and
allows us to monitor their progress. We intentionally create a safe, comfortable, fun
environment that children may begin to look forward to visiting - in the hopes that it
provides the start of a lifetime of positive dental experiences!
When you visit us, we can educate your family with proper dental hygiene tips that
will reduce the chances that your child will need restorative services. Dr. Culp and our
staff can answer any of your questions and speak with your child about positive
habits to add to their day.
X-rays
X-rays allow our team to see areas between teeth that may have decay, and monitor
dental development and tooth eruption. We use digital X-rays, which use a sensor
instead of film and expose your child to less radiation than a conventional X-ray.
Fluoride Treatments
The ADA also recommends that children younger than six who are at high risk for
cavities (dental caries) receive topical fluoride treatments or fluoride
varnishes. Fluoride is a mineral found in nature that strengthens tooth enamel.
Fluoride treatments can prevent or even sometimes reverse tooth decay. However,
each person is different, and we can provide individual recommendations for your
child.
Dental Sealants for Children
We may recommend dental sealants. They help seal the pits and grooves on the
chewing surfaces of the child's teeth to keep food particles and bacteria from getting
trapped in these areas. They are often applied to permanent molars and create a
smoother surface that is easier to clean.
Other Helpful Practices
Avoid Extended Thumb Sucking and Use of Pacifiers
Using a pacifier or sucking on a thumb is perfectly normal and allows a child to
self-soothe. However, extended thumb sucking and pacifier use (usually past age 4)
are habits that can eventually impact your little one's dental development in various
ways, such as misaligned teeth and bite irregularities (overbite, open bite, or
crossbite). Children sucking their thumbs or using a pacifier for extended times can
also cause the palate (roof of the mouth) to change and the teeth to be misaligned
by the pressure forced on it.
Protect Your Young Athlete's Teeth with a Mouthguard When Playing Sports
Nearly every sport can cause mouth injuries, so anytime your child plays as part of a
team or individual, consider a mouthguard. Custom-made mouthguards are designed
specifically for your child's mouth and provide the best protection. Boil-and-bite
mouthguards are another great option.
If your child wears braces, wearing a sports mouthguard to protect their dental
appliance is even more critical. Getting hit in the mouth can not only cause damage
to their braces and teeth, but the braces can damage their cheeks and lips. A good
mouthguard will help reduce the chance of injury to your child's mouth.
Take great care of your child's mouthguard and encourage them to do the same.
Teach them to keep it clean and dry and in its case when it's not in their mouth. Show
them how to clean it effectively and make sure to replace it if it gets worn or
damaged.
The Power of Preventive Dental Care for a Healthier Smile
Preventative dentistry and doing your part to help your child develop healthy habits
will help them maintain optimal dental health so they can shine that beautiful smile
for a lifetime! Good oral hygiene habits and regular dental visits significantly reduce
your child's risk of developing dental problems and medical conditions that can even
be life-threatening over time.
Come and visit Dr. Culp and our team at Jungle Roots Dentistry! We’d love to provide
dental services to your children and orthodontic services for the whole family. We are
privileged to be your dental home!
